2 de noviembre de 2017

El papel de la reforma protestante: Martín Lutero

Notas sobre la Reforma Protestante de Martín Lutero:


An introduction to the Protestant Reformation


Wittenberg, 1725, engraving, 18 x 15 cm (State and University Library, Dresden)

The Protestant Reformation


Today there are many types of Protestant Churches. For example, Baptist is currently the largest denomination in the United States but there are many dozens more. How did this happen? Where did they all begin? To understand the Protestant Reform movement, we need to go back in history to the early 16th century when there was only one church in Western Europe - what we would now call the Roman Catholic Church - under the leadership of the Pope in Rome. Today, we call this "Roman Catholic" because there are so many other types of churches (for example, Methodist, Baptist, Lutheran, Calvinist, Anglican - you get the idea).

The Church and the State
So, if we go back to the year 1500, the Church (what we now call the Roman Catholic Church) was very powerful (politically and spiritually) in Western Europe (and in fact ruled over significant territory in Italy called the Papal States). But there were other political forces at work too. There was the Holy Roman Empire (largely made up of German speaking regions ruled by princes, dukes and electors), the Italian city-states, England, as well as the increasingly unified nation states of France and Spain (among others). The power of the rulers of these areas had increased in the previous century and many were anxious to take the opportunity offered by the Reformation to weaken the power of the papacy (the office of the Pope) and increase their own power in relation to the Church in Rome and other rulers.

Keep in mind too, that for some time the Church had been seen as an institution plagued by internal power struggles (at one point in the late 1300s and 1400s, church was ruled by three Popes simultaneously). Popes and Cardinals often lived more like kings than spiritual leaders. Popes claimed temporal (political) as well as spiritual power. They commanded armies, made political alliances and enemies, and, sometimes, even waged war. Simony (the selling of Church offices) and nepotism (favoritism based on family relationships) were rampant. Clearly, if the Pope was concentrating on these worldly issues, there wasn't as much time left for caring for the souls of the faithful. The corruption of the Church was well known, and several attempts had been made to reform the Church (notably by John Wyclif and Jan Hus), but none of these efforts successfully challenged Church practice until Martin Luther's actions in the early 1500s.

Lucas Cranach the Elder, Martin Luther as an Augustinian Monk, 1520, engraving, 6-1/4 x 4-3/16 (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Lucas Cranach the Elder, Martin Luther as an Augustinian Monk, 1520, engraving, 6-1/4 x 4-3/16 (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Martin Luther
Martin Luther was a German monk and Professor of Theology at the University of Wittenberg. Luther sparked the Reformation in 1517 by posting, at least according to tradition, his "95 Theses" on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany - these theses were a list of statements that expressed Luther's concerns about certain Church practices - largely the sale of indulgences, but they were based on Luther's deeper concerns with Church doctrine. Before we go on, notice that the word Protestant contains the word "protest" and that reformation contains the word "reform"—this was an effort, at least at first, to protest some practices of the Catholic Church and to reform that Church.

Indulgences
The sale of indulgences was a practice where the church acknowledged a donation or other charitable work with a piece of paper (an indulgence), that certified that your soul would enter heaven more quickly by reducing your time in purgatory. If you committed no serious sins that guaranteed your place in hell, and you died before repenting and atoning for all of your sins, then your soul went to Purgatory - a kind of way-station where you finished atoning for your sins before being allowed to enter heaven.

Pope Leo X had granted indulgences to raise money for the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. These indulgences were being sold by Johann Tetzel not far from Wittenberg, where Luther was Professor of Theology. Luther was gravely concerned about the way in which getting into heaven was connected with a financial transaction. But the sale of indulgences was not Luther's only disagreement with the institution of the Church.

Faith Alone
Martin Luther was very devout and had experienced a spiritual crisis. He concluded that no matter how "good" he tried to be, no matter how he tried to stay away from sin, he still found himself having sinful thoughts. He was fearful that no matter how many good works he did, he could never do enough to earn his place in heaven (remember that, according to the Catholic Church, doing good works, for example commissioning works of art for the Church, helped one gain entrance to heaven). 

This was a profound recognition of the inescapable sinfulness of the human condition. After all, no matter how kind and good we try to be, we all find ourselves having thoughts which are unkind and sometimes much worse. Luther found a way out of this problem when he read St. Paul, who wrote 

"The just shall live by faith" (Romans 1:17). Luther understood this to mean that those who go to heaven (the just) will get there by faith alone - not by doing good works. In other words, God's grace is something freely given to human beings, not something we can earn. For the Catholic Church on the other hand, human beings, through good works, had some agency in their salvation.

Scripture Alone
Luther (and other reformers) turned to the Bible as the only reliable source of instruction (as opposed to the teachings of the Church). The invention of the printing press in the middle of the 15th century (by Gutenberg in Mainz, Germany) together with the translation of the Bible into the vernacular (the common languages of French, Italian, German, English, etc.) meant that it was possible for those who could read to learn directly from Bible without having to rely on a priest or other church officials. 

Before this time, the Bible was available in Latin, the ancient language of Rome spoken chiefly by the clergy. Before the printing press, books were handmade and extremely expensive. The invention of the printing press and the translation of the bible into the vernacular meant that for the first time in history, the Bible was available to those outside of the Church. And now, a direct relationship to God, unmediated by the institution of the Catholic Church, was possible.

When Luther and other reformers looked to the words of the Bible (and there were efforts at improving the accuracy of these new translations based on early Greek manuscripts), they found that many of the practices and teachings of the Church about how we achieve salvation didn't match Christ's teaching. This included many of the Sacraments, including Holy Communion (also known as the Eucharist). According to the Catholic Church, the miracle of Communion is transubstantiation—when the priest administers the bread and wine, they change (the prefix "trans" means to change) their substance into the body and blood of Christ. Luther denied this change during Holy Communion. Luther thereby challenged one of the central sacraments of the Catholic Church, one of its central miracles, and thereby one of the ways that human beings can achieve grace with God, or salvation.

The Counter-Reformation
The Church initially ignored Martin Luther, but Luther's ideas (and variations of them, including Calvinism) quickly spread throughout Europe. He was asked to recant (to disavow) his writings at the Diet of Worms (an unfortunate name for a council held by the Holy Roman Emperor in the German city of Worms). When Luther refused, he was excommunicated (in other words, expelled from the church). The Church's response to the threat from Luther and others during this period is called the Counter-Reformation ("counter" meaning against).

The Council of Trent
In 1545 the Church opened the Council of Trent to deal with the issues raised by Luther. The Council of Trent was an assembly of high officials in the Church who met (on and off for eighteen years) principally in the Northern Italian town of Trent for 25 sessions.
Selected Outcomes of the Council of Trent:
The Council denied the Lutheran idea of justification by faith. They affirmed, in other words, their Doctrine of Merit, which allows human beings to redeem themselves through Good Works, and through the sacraments.

They affirmed the existence of Purgatory and the usefulness of prayer and indulgences in shortening a person's stay in purgatory.
They reaffirmed the belief in transubstantiation and the importance of all seven sacraments
They reaffirmed the authority of scripture and the teachings and traditions of the Church
They reaffirmed the necessity and correctness of religious art (see below)

The Council of Trent on Religious Art
At the Council of Trent, the Church also reaffirmed the usefulness of images - but indicated that church officials should be careful to promote the correct use of images and guard against the possibility of idolatry. The council decreed that images are useful "because the honour which is shown them is referred to the prototypes which those images represent" (in other words, through the images we honor the holy figures depicted). And they listed another reason images were useful, "because the miracles which God has performed by means of the saints, and their salutary examples, are set before the eyes of the faithful; that so they may give God thanks for those things; may order their own lives and manners in imitation of the saints; and may be excited to adore and love God, and to cultivate piety."

Violence
The Reformation was a very violent period in Europe, even family members were often pitted against one another in the wars of religion. Each side, both Catholics and Protestants, were often absolutely certain that they were in the right and that the other side was doing the devil's work.

The artists of this period - Michelangelo in Rome, Titian in Venice, Durer in Nuremberg, Cranach in Saxony - were impacted by these changes since the Church had been the single largest patron for artists. Now art was being scrutinized in an entirely new way. The Catholic Church was looking to see if art communicated the stories of the Bible effectively and clearly (see Veronese's Feast in the House of Levi for more on this). Protestants on the other hand, for the most part lost the patronage of the Church and religious images (sculptures, paintings, stained glass windows etc) were destroyed in iconoclastic riots.

Other developments
It is also during this period that the Scientific Revolution gained momentum and observation of the natural world replaced religious doctrine as the source of our understanding of the universe and our place in it. Copernicus up-ended the ancient Greek model of the heavens by suggesting that the sun was at the center of the solar system and that the planets orbited around it.
At the same time, exploration, colonization and (the often forced) Christianization of what Europe called the "new world" continued. By the end of the century, the world of the Europeans was a lot bigger and opinions about that world were more varied and more uncertain than they had been for centuries.

Please note, this tutorial focuses on Western Europe. There are other forms of Christianity in other parts of the world including for example the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Essay by Dr. Steven Zucker & Dr. Beth Harris


REFORMA PROTESTANTE

El concepto de reforma protestante se compone de dos términos con significados muy definidos.
Se conoce como reforma a la acción y efecto de reformar o reformarse (volver a formar, modificar, rehacer algo) se denomina reforma.



Reforma protestante

Protestante, es un adjetivo que permite nombrar a aquel que protesta o, en el ámbito de la religión, a quien sigue el luteranismo o cualquiera de sus ramas.
Hecho esta introducción podemos decir que Reforma Protestante es el movimiento que surgió en el siglo XVI y que impulsó un cambio profundo en la Iglesia católica. Los protestantes se oponían al dominio del Papa sobre toda la comunidad cristiana y buscaban que la Iglesia retomara las raíces del primer cristianismo.

La Reforma Protestante fue impulsada por diversos religiosos, políticos e intelectuales, teniendo como líder al sacerdote Martín Lutero, quien interpretó las doctrinas medievales a partir de las Sagradas Escrituras. Esto hizo que Lutero rechazase el sistema de sacramentos de la Iglesia católica de la época, que incluía la venta de indulgencias. Para Lutero, el Evangelio debía predicarse libremente y no ser objeto de comercialización.

Esta revolución interna llevó una gran crisis dentro de la Iglesia; los reformistas criticaban la corrupción dentro de la institución y la falta de piedad religiosa. Un hecho que fue decisivo para el alzamiento de los protestantes fue la venta de indulgencias por parte de la Iglesia para financiar la edificación de la Basílica de San Pedro en la provincia de Roma.

Con la rebelión en marcha, los jefes de la parte ortodoxa de la iglesia se autoproclamaron los únicos herederos de la verdad cristiana y comenzaron a perseguir a todos aquellos que disidieran. Los grupos rechazados fundaron otras comunidades eclesiales que se manifestaron contra la herencia cristiana medieval y lucharon por la restauración de la iglesia. Esto llevó a una división rotunda de la iglesia en Europa, donde se reconocían los grupos que aceptaban el liderazgo del Papa y los que se oponían a él. Los países que se unieron a la revolución y rechazaron al Papa comenzaron a llamarse desde entonces, protestantes. Esto derivaría en múltiples guerras religiosas que tuvieron lugar en el territorio, conocidas como guerras santas.

Aunque la Reforma Protestante se originó en Alemania rápidamente fue dispersándose por todo el mundo. El líder más representativo de estos cambios fue un monje católico de la orden de los agustinos cuyo nombre era Martín Lutero.

Gracias al apoyo de diversas autoridades civiles, la Reforma Protestante logró cambiar a una gran cantidad de iglesias cristianas estatales. Con el paso del tiempo, el protestantismo logró convertirse en la tercera rama del cristianismo, con más de 500 millones en fieles en la actualidad.

La respuesta de la Iglesia

La respuesta de la Iglesia católica a la Reforma Protestante fue conocida como Contrarreforma Católica e incluyó la reafirmación de su doctrina milenaria, con la consagración del pan y del vino como el Cuerpo y la Sangre de Cristo y la veneración de las reliquias y las imágenes iconográficas como prácticas cristianas, entre otros puntos.

Reforma Protestante
Aunque en un principio no habían dado importancia a las afirmaciones de Lutero, al comprobar la repercusión que sus palabras estaban teniendo en el continente, los jefes de la comunidad cristiana tomaron cartas en el asunto: declararon hereje a Lutero y lo excomulgaron, desvinculándolo completamente de la Iglesia Católica.
A medida que la reforma protestante adquiría más peso, la Iglesia encaramada una contrarreforma en la que ponía de manifiesto sus ideales, volviendo más estrictas las condiciones a cumplir por los fieles para pertenecer a esta comunidad, por ende, para alcanzar la salvación, y ampliando sus actos sacramentales. Esta contrarreforma reavivó la llama de las devociones, surgiendo órdenes monacales y animándose otras ya vigentes, como las Carmelitas Descalzas y la Compañía de Jesús.

Reforma protestante



- El martes 31 de octubre se conmemora los 500 años de la Reforma protestante, por tal motivo, ACI Prensa presenta 7 datos esenciales que resumen las causas y consecuencias de este periodo histórico iniciado por Martín Lutero en el siglo XVI.
Agencia Católica de Informaciones 

REDACCIÓN CENTRAL, 30 Oct. 17 / 04:01 pm (ACI).
https://www.aciprensa.com/noticias/500-anos-de-la-reforma-protestante-7-cosas-que-todo-catolico-debe-saber-84612

1. El origen de la palabra protestante

La palabra “protestante” proviene de los príncipes alemanes que emiten una “protesta” contra el emperador del Sacro Imperio Romano, Carlos V, que se negaba a los llamados a la reforma luterana dentro de la Iglesia Católica.
Por tal  razón a las personas que defendían estas posturas o que se adherían a ellas les empezaron a llamar protestantes.

2. Martin Lutero es la figura más influyente de la Reforma protestante
El 31 de octubre de 1517, el fraile agustino Martín Lutero se rebeló contra la Iglesia cuando publicó sus “95 tesis” sobre la penitencia y el uso de indulgencias en la puerta del Palacio de Wittenberg, en Alemania.
Posteriormente, Lutero desarrolló esos 95 principios de su doctrina llegando a una distinta a la fe católica.
Dejó la vida religiosa y contrajo matrimonio con una exmonja, y durante su vida atacó duramente al papado y dio lugar a varias revueltas.

3. La Reforma no solo tuvo motivaciones religiosas
Si bien la venta de indulgencias fue considerada por Lutero como una de las principales razones de su ruptura con la Iglesia Católica, hubo otras razones históricas que permitieron la Reforma protestante.
Entre estas el Cisma de Occidente (1378 a 1417) que redujo en gran medida la reputación de la Iglesia Católica e hizo que muchos cuestionen la legitimidad del Papa; el inicio del periodo del Renacimiento que cuestionó el pensamiento tradicional; o el ascenso de estados nacionales y monarcas que querían el poder absoluto de su nación, como Enrique VIII, quien se separó de la Iglesia en 1534.

4. Los postulados del protestantismo de Lutero
Lutero desarrolla la creencia de que el hombre es salvado solamente por la fe en Cristo y que no existe, por tanto, obligación de hacer buenas obras.
Esta creencia equivocada es conocida históricamente como doctrina de la justificación por la sola fe (Sola Fide).  
El luteranismo también rechaza totalmente la primacía del Papa y afirma que la Biblia es única fuente de autoridad. También rechaza la intercesión de los santos y la Virgen María, la veneración de imágenes, la existencia del purgatorio.

4. Lutero fue excomulgado
La bula Exsurge Domine de 1520 del Papa León X, fue la primera respuesta del pontificado que condenó a Lutero y lo amenazó con la excomunión.
En enero de 1521, al no retractarse, Lutero fue excomulgado y luego condenado en la Dieta de Worms, un congreso imperial convocado por el emperador del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico, Carlos V.

5. Juan Calvino funda la segunda rama principal del protestantismo
Las ideas de Lutero se extendieron por toda Europa. Como consecuencia, el teólogo francés Juan Calvino, fundó la segunda rama principal del protestantismo llamada “calvinismo” en Ginebra en 1541.

Calvino considera que debía eliminarse todos los sacramentos de la Iglesia Católica, incluso los dos que conservó Lutero: el Bautismo y la Eucaristía (esta última concebida de una forma diferente), lo que llevó a la formación de otras denominaciones como presbiterianos, anglicanos, anabaptistas y congregacionalistas.

6. Las ideas de la Reforma se expandieron por la imprenta
Sin la creación de la imprenta de Johannes Guttenberg, las nuevas ideas protestantes no hubieran logrado extenderse por Europa a gran escala.

7. La Reforma causó guerras de religión
La Reforma dio lugar a una serie de guerras religiosas que finalmente culminaron en la Guerra de los Treinta Años (1618-1648), la cual devastó gran parte del actual territorio de Alemania.

4 consecuencias de la Reforma protestante en 500 años


REDACCIÓN CENTRAL, 29 Oct. 17 / 02:42 pm (ACI).- El 31 de octubre se conmemora el 500 aniversario de la Reforma protestante, día en que Martín Lutero hizo públicas sus críticas a la Iglesia Católica en Alemania y produjo un cisma.

¿Cuáles han sido los resultados, después de cinco siglos, con la proliferación de nuevas denominaciones protestantes? Pew Research Center ha recopilado a lo largo del tiempo algunos datos clave para conocer agunas cifras actuales de la Reforma protestante.

1. Los protestantes constituyen casi el 40% de cristianos en el mundo
A nivel mundial, los protestantes constituyeron 37% de los cristianos en 2010. La cifra es menor que la de los católicos, que representaban el 50% de los cristianos de todo el mundo.
Mientras que la Reforma protestante comenzó en Alemania, en el año 1010, casi 9 de cada 10 (87%) de los protestantes del mundo vivían fuera de Europa. La mayor parte de los protestantes en todo el mundo (aproximadamente el 20%) vivía en los Estados Unidos.

2. Ha aumentado el número de protestantes en América Latina
En América Latina, donde vive cerca del 40% de los católicos del mundo, las poblaciones protestantes han aumentado drásticamente.
En una encuesta realizada en la región en 2014, el 9% de los encuestados en 19 países de América Latina dijeron que se criaron como protestantes, mientras que el 19% identificó el cristianismo protestante (o evangélico) como su religión actual.
Mientras que el 84% de los encuestados se criaron como católicos, solo el 69% identificó su religión actual como católica.

3. El pentecostalismo es cada vez más popular
Un movimiento protestante relativamente reciente y distintivo que ha ganado terreno es el pentecostalismo.
Si bien las prácticas varían, las iglesias pentecostales a menudo enfatizan los “dones del Espíritu Santo”, como hablar en lenguas y recibir revelaciones directas de Dios. Estas prácticas son comunes entre los protestantes en África subsahariana, América Latina e incluso Asia.
Por ejemplo, en una encuesta realizada en 2014, la mayoría de los protestantes que asistieron a la iglesia en 19 países latinoamericanos dijeron que al menos ocasionalmente habían presenciado "hablar en lenguas", "profetizar" y orar por una curación milagrosa en la iglesia.

4. En Europa Occidental, en países como Alemania, hay menos "diferencias teológicas" entre católicos y protestantes
Aproximadamente 370 años después de que la Guerra de los Treinta Años, muchas de las controversias teológicas de la Reforma protestante "ya no dividen a los católicos y protestantes" de base en Europa Occidental, según una encuesta de 2017 realizada en 15 países de la región.
Eso no quiere decir que los postulados protestantes ya no sean contrarios a la doctrina católica, sino que en algunos lugares como Alemania, los católicos, incluso algunos miembros de la jerarquía, los han asumido como propios cuando no lo son.

Así respondió la Iglesia a la Reforma protestante

La Reforma protestante afectó a Europa, sino que también tuvo un efecto sobre el catolicismo, que respondió con la Contrarreforma.
El Concilio de Trento, de 1545 a 1563, reafirmó la validez de los siete sacramentos y la presencia real de Cristo en la Eucaristía.

El Concilio también definió formalmente la auténtica doctrina católica de la justificación, que no se basa solamente en la fe, sino también en la caridad y los sacramentos.
Como parte de la Contrarreforma, San Ignacio de Loyola fundó la Compañía de Jesús en 1540 y se fueron fundadas otras congregaciones.

Además, la Biblia se tradujo del latín a otras lenguas, extendiendo su lectura a personas que no necesariamente eran intelectuales en toda Europa.
Alemania celebra los 500 años de la Reforma Protestante
Alemania celebra este martes con actos religiosos e institucionales y una jornada de fiesta los 500 años de la Reforma Protestante, acontecimiento que cambió el rostro de Europa y que fue clave en el desarrollo de la identidad del país.

Lutero cuestionó abiertamente la venta de indulgencias por parte de la Iglesia Católica. Foto: protestantedigital.com.
EFE.

Los actos centrales tendrán lugar esta tarde en Wittenberg (este), primero con un servicio religioso ecuménico y luego con una ceremonia en la que hablará la canciller alemana, Angela Merkel.
Las celebraciones de hoy ponen fin al denominado "Año Lutero", en homenaje al reformador Martín Lutero, y que ha estado lleno de exposiciones y conferencias.

En estos actos han faltado posiciones críticas ante algunos aspectos del pensamiento de Lutero, sobre todo en lo relativo a su antisemitismo que lo hace en cierta medida antecesor de la época más negra de la historia alemana.

Sin embargo, lo que ha primado es destacar la herencia positiva de la reforma que actualmente asumen en buena parte católicos y protestantes y que ha marcado el rostro de Alemania.
La ciudad de Wittenberg es clave en la historia de la Reforma Protestante puesto que, según una tradición, fue allí donde Lutero, el 31 de octubre de 1517, clavó a martillazos sus 95 tesis, que cuestionaban abiertamente la venta de indulgencias por parte de la Iglesia Católica.
La tesis central era que la salvación se obtenía a través de la fe y de la gracia, y no a través de las obras, con lo que comprarle indulgencias a la Iglesia -para rebajar el tiempo de permanencia en el purgatorio- era algo que no tenía sentido.
La venta de indulgencias era para Lutero un factor de corrupción en el catolicismo y su idea era devolver el cristianismo a sus orígenes, para lo que la única fuente debían ser los textos bíblicos.

En 1521, cuando la difusión de las tesis -gracias al reciente invento de la imprenta- ya era enorme, Lutero fue citado por Carlos V a las cortes de Worms (oeste de Alemania) donde se negó a retractarse.

Lutero se refugió después en un castillo cerca de Eisenach (este del país), el Wartburg, uno de los lugares más emblemáticos de Alemania, donde tradujo el Nuevo Testamento al alemán.
La traducción del Nuevo Testamento, y posteriormente de toda la Biblia, tenía un objetivo principalmente teológico, pero tuvo efectos colaterales que fueron más allá de lo meramente religioso.

El texto, en primer lugar, fijó la norma del alemán moderno y fue clave para la unificación del idioma. Eso hace ya de por sí de Lutero un personaje clave de la historia de Alemania, al margen de su influencia religiosa, y lo ha convertido en una figura de identificación nacional de la que en ocasiones se ha abusado.

Además, el deseo de que todo cristiano leyese directamente la Biblia llevó a que, en las zonas donde el protestantismo se impuso, se diera un gran impulso a la educación
Durante mucho tiempo, debido a la influencia del libro clásico de Max Weber "La ética protestante y el espíritu del capitalismo" (1907), se ha tenido la idea de que una actitud especial ante el trabajo derivada de la reforma fue clave en el desarrollo de la economía en las zonas protestantes.

No obstante, investigaciones más recientes, como las realizadas por el historiador económico David Cantoni, de la Universidad de Múnich, sugieren que no fue una ética determinada sino el fomento de la educación lo que trajo como efecto secundario el florecimiento de la economía en parte de las zonas protestantes.

El mismo fomento de la educación tuvo otros efectos -no necesariamente deseados por Lutero- como el surgimiento de la ilustración alemana que, además, se vio impulsada por el debate teológico, mucho más libre dentro del protestantismo que del catolicismo.
Hasta entrado el siglo XX la separación entre católicos y protestantes en Alemania era bastante radical e incluso los matrimonios mixtos eran la excepción. Con el ecumenismo, eso ha quedado atrás.

Hoy católicos y protestantes se ven como aliados, pese a que todavía persisten diferencias teológicas.
http://www.ultimahora.com/alemania-celebra-los-500-anos-la-reforma-protestante-n1115866.html
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/renaissance-and-reformation/protestant-reformation/v/introduction-to-the-protestant-reformation-luther-2-of-4

El papel de la reforma protestante

Durante la Reforma protestante en Europa, la celebración del nacimiento de Cristo fue prohibida por algunas iglesias protestantes. En la Norte América colonial, los puritanos rechazaron la Navidad, y su celebración fue declarada ilegal de 1659 a 1681. Al mismo tiempo, los cristianos siguieron las celebraciones libremente. Sin embargo la Navidad en su espíritu decayó en los Estados Unidos después de la Revolución Norte Americana, cuando se considero que era una costumbre inglesa.

Tal vez la mejor manera de ilustrar estas diferencias es reflexionar sobre cuándo y dónde los protestantes no consideran a Jesús. Casi lo primero que se nota cuando se compara una iglesia protestante con una católica, es que Jesús no se representa en la cruz en la mayoría de las iglesias protestantes. Sólo hay una cruz, una cruz vacía, en la pared diferente de la mayoría de las formas católicas,

Consideremos lo que constituye el corazón de las reformas religiosas centrales de la Reforma protestante. No hay agua bendita, ni incienso, ni pintura, ni estatuas, ni santos, ni reliquias, ni monasterios, sin presencia real en la Eucaristía. En definitiva en este pensamiento las cosas carecen de materialidad, no importando lo físico, las cosas no se mezclan en la religión. La religión se supone que es espiritual, desencarnada. Para Lutero las cosas del cuerpo simplemente no importaban, así que el celibato no importaba, tampoco.

Hay algo de la idea de que, si uno va a dejar de lado la materialidad de esta manera, entonces es muy probable que haya que compensarla con el materialismo. Y esto es lo que Norte América ha hecho de la Navidad y ha calado en el espíritu de navidad en el resto del mundo.

El Calvinismo

Los cinco puntos del calvinismo son:

1. La depravación total del hombre: Como consecuencia de la Caída del hombre, cada persona que nace en este mundo esta esclavizada al servicio del pecado. Según este punto, las personas, por naturaleza, no están inclinadas a amar a Dios con todo su corazón, mente o fuerza, sino que están inclinadas a fijarse en sus propios intereses sobre los de su prójimo, y rechazan el señorío de Dios. Por eso, todas las personas, por sus propias capacidades, son incapaces de escoger el seguir a Dios y ser salvados.

2. Elección incondicional: La elección de Dios de a quienes se llevara consigo no es basada en virtud prevista, merito, o fe en dichas personas. Sino en que esta incondicionalmente fundada en la misericordia de Dios.

3. Expiación limitada: La muerte de Cristo tuvo como propósito quitar la culpa de los pecados solamente a aquellos a quienes Dios escogió en su misericordia antes de la fundación del mundo y que posteriormente atraería a sí mismo. Se “limita” a si mismo en remover los pecados de los elegidos, mas no de los de la humanidad, y es “definida” y “particular” porque la purificación es segura para estas personas particulares.

4. Gracia irresistible: La salvación de un ser humano se realiza a través de las tres personas de la Trinidad, el Padre Eligio a quienes habrían de ser salvados, El Hijo llevo a cabo la salvación y propiciación, el Espíritu Santo, llama y preserva a los santos, lo cual ni puede ser resistido por la persona, que necesariamente llegara a la Fe en la obra Salvadora de Jesús.

5. Perseveración de los Santos: Aquella persona que haya sido llamada por el Espíritu Santo y que por ello es un verdadero creyente, nunca podrá abandonar la Fe. Esta doctrina es un resultado de la persistencia del carácter de Dios y de su Omnipotencia, que al proponerse desde antes de la fundación del mundo, el tener misericordia para con una persona. El realizará su propósito sin falla. Por lo tanto un verdadero creyente no puede caer de la gracia, no puede perder la salvación.

20 de octubre de 2017

John Dewey (1859—1952)

John Dewey (1859—1952)

Comparto información sobre la obra del filosofo y educador norteamericano John Dewey.

Fecha de su nacimiento 20 de octubre de 1859.



John Dewey was a leading proponent of the American school of thought known as pragmatism, a view that rejected the dualistic epistemology and metaphysics of modern philosophy in favor of a naturalistic approach that viewed knowledge as arising from an active adaptation of the human organism to its environment.

On this view, inquiry should not be understood as consisting of a mind passively observing the world and drawing from this ideas that if true correspond to reality, but rather as a process which initiates with a check or obstacle to successful human action, proceeds to active manipulation of the environment to test hypotheses, and issues in a re-adaptation of organism to environment that allows once again for human action to proceed.

With this view as his starting point, Dewey developed a broad body of work encompassing virtually all of the main areas of philosophical concern in his day. He also wrote extensively on social issues in such popular publications as the New Republic, thereby gaining a reputation as a leading social commentator of his time.

http://www.iep.utm.edu/dewey/

John Dewey
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHER AND EDUCATOR

WRITTEN BY: James S. Gouinlock

John Dewey, (born Oct. 20, 1859, Burlington, Vt., U.S.—died June 1, 1952, New York, N.Y.), American philosopher and educator who was a founder of the philosophical movement known as pragmatism, a pioneer in functional psychology, and a leader of the progressive movement in education in the United States.

Dewey graduated with a bachelor’s degree from the University of Vermont in 1879. After receiving a doctorate in philosophy from Johns Hopkins University in 1884, he began teaching philosophy and psychology at the University of Michigan. There his interests gradually shifted from the philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel to the new experimental psychology being advanced in the United States by G. Stanley Hall and the pragmatist philosopher and psychologist William James. Further study of child psychology prompted Dewey to develop a philosophy of education that would meet the needs of a changing democratic society. In 1894 he joined the faculty of philosophy at the University of Chicago, where he further developed his progressive pedagogy in the university’s Laboratory Schools. In 1904 Dewey left Chicago for Columbia University in New York City, where he spent the majority of his career and wrote his most famous philosophical work, Experience and Nature (1925). His subsequent writing, which included articles in popular periodicals, treated topics in aesthetics, politics, and religion. The common theme underlying Dewey’s philosophy was his belief that a democratic society of informed and engaged inquirers was the best means of promoting human 
interests.



Being, Nature, And Experience
In order to develop and articulate his philosophical system, Dewey first needed to expose what he regarded as the flaws of the existing tradition. He believed that the distinguishing feature of Western philosophy was its assumption that true being—that which is fully real or fully knowable—is changeless, perfect, and eternal and the source of whatever reality the world of experience may possess. Plato’s forms (abstract entities corresponding to the properties of particular things) and the Christian conception of God were two examples of such a static, pure, and transcendent being, compared with which anything that undergoes change is imperfect and less real. According to one modern version of the assumption, developed by the 17th-century philosopher René Descartes, all experience is subjective, an exclusively mental phenomenon that cannot provide evidence of the existence or the nature of the physical world, the “matter” of which is ultimately nothing more than changeless extension in motion. The Western tradition thus made a radical distinction between true reality on the one hand and the endless varieties and variations of worldly human experience on the other.

Dewey held that this philosophy of nature was drastically impoverished. Rejecting any dualism between being and experience, he proposed that all things are subject to change and do change. There is no static being, and there is no changeless nature. Nor is experience purely subjective, because the human mind is itself part and parcel of nature. Human experiences are the outcomes of a range of interacting processes and are thus worldly events. The challenge to human life, therefore, is to determine how to live well with processes of change, not somehow to transcend them.
Nature And The Construction Of Ends

Dewey developed a metaphysics that examined characteristics of nature that encompassed human experience but were either ignored by or misrepresented by more traditional philosophers. Three such characteristics—what he called the “precarious,” “histories,” and “ends”—were central to his philosophical project.

The precarious
For Dewey, a precarious event is one that somehow makes ongoing experience problematic; thus, any obstacle, disruption, danger, or surprise of any kind is precarious. As noted earlier, because humanity is a part of nature, all things that humans encounter in their daily experience, including other humans and the social institutions they inhabit, are natural events. The arbitrary cruelty of a tyrant or the kindness shown by a stranger is as natural and precarious as the destruction wrought by a flood or the vibrant colours of a sunset. Human ideas and moral norms must also be viewed in this way. Human knowledge is wholly intertwined with precarious, constantly changing nature.

Histories

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Freddie Bartholomew (left) and Mickey Rooney in Little Lord Fauntleroy (1936). The Littlest of Them All

The constancy of change does not imply a complete lack of continuity with the past stages of natural processes. What Dewey meant by a history was a process of change with an identifiable outcome. When the constituent processes of a history are identified, they become subject to modification, and their outcome can be deliberately varied and secured. Dewey’s conception of a history has an obvious implication for humanity: no person’s fate is sealed by an antecedently given human nature, temperament, character, talent, or social role. This is why Dewey was so concerned with developing a philosophy of education. With an appropriate knowledge of the conditions necessary for human growth, an individual may develop in any of a variety of ways. The object of education is thus to promote the fruition of an active history of a specific kind—a human history.

Ends and goods
Since at least the time of Aristotle (384–322 bce), many Western philosophers have made use of the notion of end, or final cause—i.e., a cause conceived of as a natural purpose or goal (see teleology). In ethics, ends are the natural or consciously determined goals of moral actions; they are moral absolutes, such as happiness or “the good,” that human actions are designed to bring about. But such ends must be discerned before they can be fully attained. For Dewey, on the other hand, an end is a deliberately constructed outcome of a history. Hence, his expression “the construction of good” encapsulates much of the significance of his philosophy. A person confronted by a spontaneous intrusion of the precarious world into the seemingly steady course of his life will identify and analyze the constituents of his particular situation and then consider what changes he might introduce in order to produce, in Dewey’s parlance, a “consummatory” end. Such an end is a fulfillment of these particular conditions, and it is unique to them. Similarly, there is no such thing as an absolute good against which actions may be evaluated; rather, any constructed end that promotes human flourishing while taking into account the precarious is a good.

Instrumentalism
Dewey joined and gave direction to American pragmatism, which was initiated by the logician and philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce in the mid-19th century and continued into the early 20th century by William James, among other thinkers. Anticipating Dewey, James regarded reality as an array of “buzzing” rather than static data, and he argued that the distinction between mental experience and the physical world is “messy” rather than pristine. Another theme of early pragmatism, also adopted by Dewey, was the importance of experimental inquiry. Peirce, for example, praised the scientific method’s openness to repeated testing and revision of hypotheses, and he warned against treating any idea as an infallible reflection of reality. In general, pragmatists were inspired by the dramatic advances in science and technology during the 19th century—indeed, many had formal scientific training and performed experiments in the natural, physical, or social sciences.

Studio portrait of John Dewey.
Underwood & Underwood, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (negative no. LC-USZ62-51525)
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Dewey’s particular version of pragmatism, which he called “instrumentalism,” is the view that knowledge results from the discernment of correlations between events, or processes of change. Inquiry requires an active participation in such processes: the inquirer introduces specific variations in them to determine what differences thereby occur in related processes and measures how a given event changes in relation to variations in associated events. For example, experimental inquiry may seek to discern how malignancies in a human organism change in relation to variations in specific forms of treatment, or how students become better learners when exposed to particular methods of instruction.

True to the name he gave it, and in keeping with earlier pragmatists, Dewey held that ideas are instruments, or tools, that humans use to make greater sense of the world. Specifically, ideas are plans of action and predictors of future events. A person possesses an idea when he is prepared to use a given object in a manner that will produce a predictable result. Thus, a person has an idea of a hammer when he is prepared to use such an object to drive nails into wood. An idea in the science of medicine may predict that the introduction of a certain vaccine will prevent the onset of future maladies of a definite sort. Ideas predict that the undertaking of a definite line of conduct in specified conditions will produce a determinate result. Of course, ideas might be mistaken. They must be tested experimentally to see whether their predictions are borne out. Experimentation itself is fallible, but the chance for error is mitigated by further, more rigorous inquiry. Instrumentalism’s operating premise is that ideas empower people to direct natural events, including social processes and institutions, toward human benefit.

Democracy As A Way Of Life
Given its emphasis on the revisability of ideas, the flux of nature, and the construction of ends or goods, , one may wonder how Dewey’s philosophy could provide moral criteria by which purported goods may be evaluated. Dewey did not provide a thorough, systematic response to the question of how an instrumentalist determines the difference between good and evil. His typical rejoinder was that human fulfillment will be far more widespread when people fully realize that precarious natural events may come under deliberate human direction. Dewey made this claim, however, without sufficiently weighing the problem of how people are to choose between one proposed vision of fulfillment and another, especially when there are honest disagreements about their respective merits. 

Yet, while he never solved the problem, Dewey did address it in his philosophy of democracy, which he referred to as “democracy as a way of life.”

Dewey conceived of democracy as an active process of social planning and collective action in all spheres of common life. Democracy is also a source of moral values that may guide the establishment and evolution of social institutions that promote human flourishing. However, unlike other moral frameworks (e.g., great religious traditions or political ideologies), democracy as a way of life is neither absolutist nor relativistic, because its norms and procedures are fallible and experimental. It is a consciously collaborative process in which individuals consult with each other to identify and address their common problems; indeed, Dewey spoke of democracy as “social intelligence.” Within a fully democratic society, Dewey suggested, people would treat each other with respect and would demonstrate a willingness to revise their views while maintaining a commitment to cooperative action and experimental inquiry.

James S. Gouinlock
https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dewey

The Positive encourager
http://www.thepositiveencourager.global/john-deweys-approach-to-doing-positive-work/

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12 de octubre de 2017

Charles Taylor: Fuentes del yo.

El filósofo Charles Taylor, primer ganador del premio Berggruen

El galardón, dotado con un millón de dólares canadienses, distingue al pensador por sus ideas sobre "el autoconocimiento y crecimiento de la especie humana"

FRANCESC ARROYO
Barcelona 6 OCT 2016 - 11:24 CEST



El escritor y filósofo canadiense Charles Taylor, en Barcelona en agosto de 2015.


El escritor y filósofo canadiense Charles Taylor, en Barcelona en agosto de 2015. CONSUELO BAUTISTA

El filósofo canadiense Charles Taylor (Montreal, 1931) fue galardonado este martes con el premio que concede el Instituto Berggruen, fundado en 2010 para impulsar el diálogo y el pensamiento. El premio, que se concede este año por primera vez, está dotado con un millón de dólares canadienses (unos 676.000 euros). El jurado está compuesto por destacados pensadores y académicos, entre los que figuran el premio Nobel de Economía Amartya Sen, el médico Antonio Damasio, de la Universidad de Pensilvania y la matemática Alison Miller, de la Universidad de Harvard.

El director y fundador del Instituto, Nicolas Berggruen, destacó que la obra de Taylor ha contribuido a transformar el pensamiento sobre el mundo y sobre aspectos básicos de la vida humana. El presidente de la entidad, Craig Calhoun, resaltó el carácter intelectual y a la vez humilde de la filosofía de Taylor, así como su calidad humana y su capacidad para la enseñanza y el compromiso público.

Taylor estudió Historia en la Universidad McGill (Montreal), centro al que volvería como profesor después de haber completado sus estudios en Oxford, donde se doctoró en Filosofía con una tesis dirigida por Isaiah Berlin.

Ruth Abbey, compiladora de un volumen colectivo sobre la obra de Taylor, anota que, tras su jubilación, no ha dejado nunca de escribir, enseñar y dar charlas por todo el mundo. En España impartió unas conferencias el pasado año en Barcelona, coincidiendo con la traducción de La era secular (Gedisa), su penúltima obra. La última, The language animal, aparecida este mismo año, no tiene todavía versión española. La era secular son dos tomos que suman casi 1.200 páginas.

Taylor analiza el concepto de secularidad a lo largo de la historia, con especial atención al periodo que va desde el Renacimiento hasta hoy. Describe la construcción de un imaginario social que en economía tiene en cuenta tanto el interés social como el beneficio mutuo, mientras que considera la democracia (la convivencia basada en el consentimiento entre iguales) el mejor sistema político para administrar una esfera pública que, sostiene, si no existiera habría que fingirla. Como se ve, el proyecto inicial, el proceso de secularización occidental, queda ampliamente superado.

En unos tiempos en los que se anuncia que ya no hay posibilidad de visión global del mundo, Taylor demuestra en cada una de sus obras (y en el conjunto de ellas) lo contrario. El volumen citado de Abbey dedica cada capítulo a un aspecto de sus diversas aportaciones: la hermenéutica, la epistemología, la moral, la teoría política, el feminismo, la relación entre creencias religiosas y prácticas políticas. 

Y se podría añadir que nunca ha dejado de lado las reflexiones sobre filosofía de la mente y sobre la filosofía del lenguaje o sobre estética. “Para hablar como filósofo hay que leer literatura, escuchar música”, defiende. En su opinión, hay “muchas otras formas de expresar las cosas”.

Sus obras más difundidas son Fuentes del yo: la construcción de la identidad moderna, El multiculturalismo y "la política del reconocimiento", y La ética de la autenticidad (Paidós). En todas ellas se aprecia la clara influencia de Heidegger, pero también de Aristóteles. Taylor es un realista (tendencia que empieza a ser recuperada frente al posmodernismo dominante en Europa en las últimas décadas) convencido de que podemos tener conocimiento de un mundo exterior a nosotros. Es cierto que podemos plantearnos la posibilidad de que ese mundo sea realmente distinto a cómo lo percibimos, pero de la mano de la ciencia, las aproximaciones al mundo exterior tienen grandes posibilidades de acercarse a la realidad.

Taylor es firme defensor del pluralismo, en política y en filosofía. Pero el pluralismo no tiene por qué llevar al relativismo. En su opinión, se puede aceptar que la visión del mundo que nos aporta la ciencia es la más precisa, cuando utilizamos los lenguajes de la civilización occidental, asumiendo que hay otros tipos de aproximaciones a la realidad.

No obstante, en materia moral es condición más que recomendable intentar superar el subjetivismo, lo que no significa atrincherarse en la verdad y menos aún hacer proselitismo. El único pecado que no hay que tolerar, afirma, es la intolerancia.




Charles Taylor
CANADIAN PHILOSOPHER
WRITTEN BY: Ruth Abbey
See Article History
Alternative Title: Charles Margrave Taylor

Charles Taylor: CANADIAN PHILOSOPHER
Charles Taylor
ALSO KNOWN AS: Charles Margrave Taylor
BORN November 5, 1931 (age 85)
Montreal, Canada
POLITICAL AFFILIATION: New Democratic Party
SUBJECTS OF STUDY: individualism
secularism: self
AWARDS AND HONORS
John W. Kluge Prize For Achievement In The Study Of Humanity (2015)
Kyoto Prize (2008), Templeton Prize (2007)
VIEW BIOGRAPHIES RELATED TO
CATEGORIES: philosophy, DATES: November 5
RELATED BIOGRAPHIES

Jean Vanier, Jack Layton, Bernard d’Espagnat, Glen David Clark, Holmes Rolston III, Herbert Spencer, Thomas Mulcair, William Godwin, Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow, Jürgen Habermas

Charles Taylor, in full Charles Margrave Taylor (born November 5, 1931, Montreal, Quebec, Canada), Canadian philosopher known for his examination of the modern self.

He produced a large body of work that is remarkable for its range—both for the number of areas and issues it addresses as well as for the breadth of scholarship it draws upon. His writings have been translated into a host of Western and non-Western languages.

Taylor was raised in a bicultural, bilingual family with a Protestant, English-speaking father and a Roman Catholic, Francophone mother. After completing an undergraduate degree in history (1952) at McGill University in his native Montreal, Taylor earned a second bachelor’s degree in politics, philosophy, and economics (1955) at Balliol College at the University of Oxford. He was awarded a doctorate in philosophy at Oxford in 1961. Most of Taylor’s academic career was spent at McGill and Oxford; at the latter institution he held the Chichele Professorship of Social and Political Theory.

The Modern Self
Taylor’s first major work, Hegel (1975), was a large study of the 19th-century German philosopher that emphasized the ways in which Hegel’s philosophy continues to be relevant to contemporary political and social theory. In 1989 Taylor published Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity, which explored the multiplicity of the self, or the human subject, in the modern Western world. Taking a historical perspective, Taylor showed that several strands and sources have gone into making the modern identity. 

A distinctly modern conception of selfhood thus encompasses a being who values freedom, who possesses inner depths that are deserving of exploration, who sees nature as a source of goodness and contact with it as renewing, who prizes authenticity and individuality, who affirms ordinary life, and who feels the pull of benevolence toward the suffering of others. These strands of Taylor’s modern self are sometimes complementary and sometimes contradictory: the ideal of freedom, for example, has historically been associated with technological control over the natural world, which puts it at odds with the more Romantic view of nature as a source of goodness and renewal.

Meaning And Morality
It is hard to situate Taylor squarely within any particular philosophical school. Indeed, he is often described as bridging the gap between analytic (or Anglo-American) and Continental styles of philosophy. Influenced by the 20th-century German philosophers Martin Heidegger and Hans-Georg Gadamer, Taylor took a hermeneutical approach to the study of society, insisting that the meanings that humans give to their actions must be taken into acount by the social sciences.

Thus, one cannot explain voting behaviour, for example, simply by reference to the self-interested calculations of individuals. One must also consider that for many people voting is an important expression of their involvement in a democratic community. Taylor has been dubbed a communitarian for emphasizing the social nature of selfhood and the obligations that individuals have to the communities in which they live.

Taylor’s insistence on the importance of meanings creates a powerful awareness of the way meanings change over time and differ across cultures. Yet this variation does not lead him to deny the idea of a universal and unchanging human nature. He holds that certain features necessarily accompany being human and thus transcend differences of time, place, culture, and language.

Among them are: being self-interpreting (the way in which human beings understand themselves forms a significant part of their identity); being language animals (language mediates their relations to others, to the environment, and to themselves); and having identities that are constituted through dialogue. Taylor maintains that a person’s sense of self is not something that can be achieved alone: it depends on recognition from others for its realization.

Conversely, the failure to have one’s identity accurately acknowledged by others can distort or damage a person’s sense of who he is. Other features that all human beings share include: having purposes that play an important part in their sense of who they are; being located within a moral framework that orients individuals toward the things they most value and provides a sense of whether their lives are moving closer to or further from those goods; and being what Taylor called “strong evaluators.”

With the concept of strong evaluation, Taylor posits that individuals rank some of their desires, or the goods that they desire, as qualitatively higher than others; some are seen to be more worthy, valuable, meaningful, or important than others. The fact of strong evaluation means that humans are not simply weighers of preferences. Instead, in some of their choices, they make qualitative distinctions among the things they value or seek.

In his later work Taylor became more overt about the ways in which being a practicing Roman Catholic shaped his intellectual agenda and approach. Some hints about his religious views were dropped at the end of Sources of the Self, but after the publication of that work his remarks on this topic became more frequent and more explicit. Taylor, for example, injected himself into 21st-century debates about the role of religion in modern Western societies with his massive work A Secular Age, published in 2007.

A Secular Age tracks some of the major changes in Christian belief in Western societies during the last five centuries, examining how it has come to be that modern individuals can understand themselves, their society, and the natural world in a purely secular way, devoid of any reference to the divine or to a transcendent realm of any sort. 

What Taylor calls the “modern social imaginary” stands in direct contrast to the condition that obtained in 1500, when God was implicated in all areas of social and political life. Yet, despite the shifts in religion’s content and its social location over time, Taylor seems to suggest that humans necessarily have some orientation toward what he calls “transcendence”—some yearning for meaning that goes above and beyond the merely human.

In addition to his major works, Taylor published a large number of shorter works on topics as varied as freedom, democracy, nationalism, human rights, philosophical anthropology, cross-cultural understanding, moral theory, the philosophy of language, the philosophy of mind, and epistemology (theory of knowledge). In one of his well-known essays, “The Politics of Recognition” (1992), Taylor tried to provide a deeper philosophical explanation of why groups within Western societies were increasingly making claims for public acknowledgment of their particular identities, be this on the basis of gender, race, or ethnicity.

Taylor’s distinguished academic career was interlaced with political participation. He was active in the Canadian New Democratic Party (NDP), which promotes a social democratic platform, and ran a number of times (unsuccessfully) as one of its candidates for federal Parliament. He served on the Quebec government’s French Language Council and in 2007–08 cochaired a public inquiry into the future of cultural and religious differences in that province. He was appointed a member of the Companion of the Order of Canada, the country’s highest civilian honour, in 1996.

He was also a winner of the Templeton Prize for Progress Toward Research or Discoveries About Spiritual Realities (2007), the Kyoto Prize for significant contributions to the scientific, cultural, or spiritual betterment of humankind (2008), and the John W. Kluge Prize for Achievement in the Study of Humanity (2015).
Ruth Abbey

MORE ABOUT Charles Taylor
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civil society (in civil society: Contemporary political discourse)
communitarianism (in communitarianism: Varieties of communitarianism)
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